REF-645 · Lindinger, Holmberg, Müller & Rapp, 2009 · European Journal of Applied Physiology, · Paper · PubMed
Elite skiers double-pole faster with higher peak pole force and rate of force development, driven by a stretch-shortening cycle in the upper body
Pre-activation before pole plant and a reflex-mediated burst 30–120 ms after it, especially in the triceps
Participants
n=13 elite cross-country skiers double-poling on a roller-ski treadmill at 9, 15, 21 and 27 km/h and at individual maximal velocity; elbow angle, axial pole force and surface EMG of triceps brachii, pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi and teres major recorded.
Protocol
Cross-sectional laboratory study: thirteen elite skiers double-poled on a roller-ski treadmill at increasing velocities of 9, 15, 21 and 27 km/h and at their individual maximal velocity (from the abstract).
Recorded: elbow angle, axial pole force, and surface EMG of triceps brachii, pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi and teres major.
MVC-normalized EMG analysed by phase: pre-activation before pole plant, elbow flexion, and the reflex-mediated phase between 30 and 120 ms after pole plant.
Key Findings
With increasing velocity, peak pole force, rate of force development and elbow-flexion angular velocity all increased (P < 0.05).
MVC-normalised EMG amplitudes rose in the pre-activation phase before pole plant, during elbow flexion, and in the reflex-mediated phase 30–120 ms after pole plant as velocity increased (P < 0.05).
Authors' interpretation: elite skiers use a stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) in the upper body during double poling, particularly in the triceps, to generate high forces — a pre-stretch under load (elbow flexion after pole plant) followed by a powerful extension.
Poling frequency, trunk-muscle EMG and the duration of force application were not reported in the abstract.
Practical Application
In 13 elite skiers, faster double poling came with higher peak pole force and faster force development, and the arm extensors (triceps above all) were pre-activated before pole plant and fired reflexively 30–120 ms after it — a stretch-shortening pattern. Train double-poling speed as an upper-body force-and-SSC quality: heavy pulling/pushing strength for the arm extensors (REF-647) plus fast, elastic poling drills that rehearse the pre-loaded plant-and-extend pattern.
Not from this paper; the base's own practice: pair that specific-strength work with the endurance base, and treat trunk strength and poling-frequency work as complementary technique training (neither was measured here).
Limitations
Small mechanistic cross-sectional sample (n=13); EMG amplitude is not a direct measure of force or of long-term trainability; no performance intervention.
How this entry was checked and changed
Why this level
regraded 2026-09-27 from C: mechanistic lab study with no performance outcome, n=13 (rubric C+)
Content correction 2026-09-27
Title/lead "faster mainly by greater, earlier trunk/upper-body activation and higher poling frequency — not longer force application" -> the abstract reports increased peak pole force, rate of force development and elbow-flexion velocity, with EMG rising in pre-activation, elbow-flexion and reflex (30–120 ms) phases, interpreted as upper-body stretch-shortening cycle use; poling frequency, trunk muscles and force-application duration are not in the abstract. Rewritten.
Added n=13 and the test velocities (9, 15, 21, 27 km/h, max); Level C -> C+ per the 2026-09-26 rubric (mechanistic lab study); Sport line normalised.
Cross-reference description repeated a claim that the cited entry no longer makes (it was corrected against its abstract); description updated to the cited entry's current content.
2026-09-28: added Protocol from the abstract (Europe PMC, DOI 10.1007/s00421-009-1018-5).
2026-09-28: PMID 19294412 belonged to an unrelated paper; replaced with 19280214, the PubMed record for this entry's own DOI.