REF-976 · Gourgoulis et al., 2008 · Journal of Biomechanics, Vol. · Paper · PubMed

Estimation of hand forces and propelling efficiency during front crawl swimming with hand paddles

Blimited evidenceMeasured on a mixed groupWritten before October 2026, being re-checked

Do hand paddles change how much lift versus drag the hand contributes, and how efficiently front crawl propels the swimmer? Eight female swimmers did all-out 25 m swims with no paddles, small paddles and large paddles, filmed by four cameras.

Paddles slowed the hand, yet their bigger propulsive surface raised the forces it produced; the lift-drag balance and the direction of the resultant force stayed the same.

With paddles, propelling efficiency, stroke length and swimming speed went up while stroke rate dropped significantly — a drop that, in the authors' view, might argue against the value of paddle training, especially with large paddles.

Participants

n=8 female swimmers. Age and competitive level are not given in the abstract.

Protocol

All-out 25 m front crawl under three conditions: no paddles, small paddles (116 cm(2)) and large paddles (268 cm(2)).
Four cameras operating at 60 Hz; digitisation with the Ariel Performance Analysis System.
Outcomes: drag, lift, resultant and effective forces of the hand, propelling efficiency, stroke length, stroke rate, swimming velocity.

Key Results

With paddles the hand's velocity decreased, but the drag, lift, resultant and effective forces of the hand increased.
Paddles changed neither the share of propulsion coming from lift versus drag nor the direction of the resultant force.
Propelling efficiency, stroke length and swimming velocity increased with paddles, mainly because of the larger propulsive area.
Stroke rate decreased significantly, which the authors say may call into question the effectiveness of hand-paddle training, especially with large paddles.
No numerical values for forces, efficiency or stroke rate are given in the abstract.

Practical Application

In eight female swimmers sprinting 25 m of front crawl without paddles, with small (116 cm(2)) and with large (268 cm(2)) paddles, paddles raised hand forces, propelling efficiency, stroke length and swimming velocity without changing the balance of lift and drag, but lowered stroke rate significantly. To "do paddles help my swim?": they make the swimmer faster and longer per stroke while they are on, at a slower stroke rate; whether that carries over to swimming without them was not tested.
The authors' own caution is about specificity: the drop in stroke rate is why they question paddle training, particularly with large paddles.
Inference, not tested here: prefer small paddles to large ones, and keep an eye on stroke rate so that paddle sets do not rehearse a slower stroke than the one raced.
Not from this paper; the base's own practice: where paddles and the pull buoy sit in a swim week is in SYNTH-74; the gear rules there are practice, not evidence.

Limitations

n=8, female swimmers only, level not stated.
A single maximal 25 m per condition: acute mechanics, not a training study and not aerobic-pace swimming.
Forces were estimated from video, not measured directly; no numerical results in the abstract.
No data on shoulder load or injury.
Written from the abstract and record metadata only (full text not read).
How this entry was checked and changed
Why this level

within-subject comparison, n=8, single maximal 25 m efforts; acute mechanics, no training outcome